Lesson 17
Building a Turtle Graphics Program
Now we can look at a graphics program, called Turtle. It defines a number of complex graphics curves and a way we'll be able to create a mini-Logo language out of several definitions in the program. We'll also have some more opportunity to use Toolbox calls. The source file is called 'Turtle', and is in 'Demo folder'.
Here's the whole thing first. We'll then go through it in detail.
\ Turtle Graphics Objects for Demo
need sin
decimal
\ Class PEN defines a turtle-graphics pen.
syscall GetPenState
syscall SetPenState
syscall Line
syscall LineTo
:class PEN super{ object }
68k_record{ \ These first 5 ivars comprise a PenState structure
point PnLoc \ location of pen
point PnSize \ width, height
int PnMode
var PnPatLo
var PnPatHi
}
angle Direction
point homeLoc
int maxReps
int initLen
int deltaLen \ change in len
int deltaDeg \ change in angle
:m GET: ^base GetPenState ;m \ Save state here
:m SET: ^base SetPenState ;m \ Restore from here
:m TURN: ( deg -- ) +: direction ;m
:m UP: 90 put: direction ;m
:m MOVETO: \ ( x y -- ) Draws a line to x,y if pen shows
set: self LineTo get: self ;m
:m MOVE: { dist -- } \ Draws dist bits in current direction
set: self cos: direction dist * 10000 /
sin: direction dist * 10000 / negate
Line get: self ;m
:m GOTO: \ ( x y -- ) Goes to a location without drawing
put: PnLoc ;m
:m CENTER: \ ( x y -- ) Sets the center coordinates
put: homeLoc ;m
:m HOME: \ ( -- ) Places pen in center of Mops window
get: homeLoc goto: self ;m
:m SIZE: \ ( w h -- ) Sets size in pixels of drawing pen
put: PnSize ;m
:m INIT: \ ( x y w h mode -- )
put: PnMode put: PnSize put: PnLoc ;m
:m PUTRANGE: \ ( initlen dLen dDeg -- ) Sets parameters
put: deltaDeg put: deltaLen put: initLen ;m
:m PUTMAX: ( maxReps -- ) put: maxReps ;m
:m CLASSINIT: get: self 200 put: maxReps ;m
:m SPIRAL: { \ dist degrees delta reps -- }
\ Draws a spiral of line segments - Logo POLYSPI
home: self
get: initLen -> dist get: deltaLen -> delta
get: deltaDeg -> degrees 0 -> reps
BEGIN 1 ++> reps reps get: maxReps <
WHILE dist move: self degrees turn: self
delta ++> dist
REPEAT ;m
:m DRAGON: \ ( n -- ) Dragon curves from Martin Gardner
dup
NIF get: deltaLen move: self drop
ELSE dup 0>
IF dup 1- dragon: self
get: deltadeg turn: self
1 swap - dragon: self
ELSE
-1 over - dragon: self
360 get: deltadeg - turn: self
1+ dragon: self
THEN
THEN ;m
:m LJ: { \ reps -- } \ Draws an infinite Lissajous figure
up: self 0 -> reps
get: initLen get: direction * cos 120 / getX: homeLoc +
get: deltalen get: direction * sin 120 / negate getY: homeLoc +
goto: self
BEGIN 1 ++> reps reps get: maxReps <
WHILE
get: initLen get: direction * cos 120 / getX: homeLoc +
get: deltaLen get: direction * sin 120 / negate
getY: homeLoc + moveTo: self
get: deltaDeg turn: self
REPEAT ;m
;class
\ Define a Smalltalk Polygon object as subclass of Pen
:class POLY super{ pen }
int Sides \ # of sides in the Polygon
int Length \ Length of each side
:m DRAW: { \ turnAngle -- }
360 get: sides / -> turnAngle
get: sides 0
DO get: length move: self
turnAngle turn: self
LOOP ;m
:m SIZE: \ ( len #sides -- ) Stores sides and goes to Home
get: self put: sides put: length
home: self up: self ;m
:m SPIN: { \ reps -- } \ Spins a series of polygons around a point
home: self 10 get: initLen size: self
0 -> reps
BEGIN reps get: maxReps <
WHILE draw: self get: deltaDeg turn: self
get: deltaLen +: length 1 ++> reps
REPEAT ;m
:m CLASSINIT: \ Default Poly is 30-dot triangle
30 3 size: self 100 put: maxReps ;m
;class
\ Create a pen named Bic
Pen BIC
\ Create a Polygon named Anna
Poly ANNA
60 4 size: Anna
We'll now look at this program in detail.
need sin
This statement ensures that the Sin file is loaded before this one. In this file we will make use of the Angle class we defined in the file Sin (described in the previous lesson).
The program in this file begins with a declaration that all numbers to follow will be in decimal.
decimal
This ensures that all numbers to follow will be in decimal, just in case a different number base was current before. Incidentally, you can place different portions of your program in differ-ent number bases, but you may have less difficulty remem-bering what number base you're in if you stay in decimal and precede any hex number with a dollar sign and a space (e.g., $ AE9F).
syscall GetPenState syscall SetPenState syscall Line syscall LineTo
GetPenState, SetPenState, Line and LineTo are Mac Toolbox calls. We don't want to include information about every possible Toolbox call in your Mops program, since there are so many, but we do need information about the ones you actually use. The word 'syscall' tells the Mops system that you are going to be using the Toolbox calls whose name you put after 'syscall', and includes the information that Mops needs to compile the calls correctly.
Here are the important things you need to know about syscall:
- You have to use syscall for any Toolbox call you're going to make, you have to do it outside any definition, and before any definition in which you do the call. It doesn't matter if you use syscall several times over for the one call — in different source files, say — subsequent ones will be ignored. In fact, three of these syscalls are already defined in the QD (QuickDraw) file. However by putting them all here, there's no penalty, and if we ever change QD the code here will still work.
- The names following syscall are case sensitive, this is the one place in Mops where case matters. This is forced on us by the way Apple handles its Toolbox calls on PowerMacs. So for example, if we had put
syscall getpenstate
above, we would have received a compile-time error message telling us that Mops couldn't find the name. - Not all Toolbox routines mentioned in Inside Macintosh are accessible to Mops. This is because some of them are not actually built into the MacOS, but are provided by MPW, CodeWarrior, or other compiler. If there is no MacOS code corresponding to a Toolbox routine name that you find in Inside Macintosh, Mops will generate a compile-time error message.
If you have been using an old version of Mops (pre-2.7), you would have been using an old way of doing Toolbox calls. This required you to push an initial zero on the stack if the call returned a result, and to use words such as word0 and pack to convert parameters from 32 to 16 bits if necessary. Thankfully, those complexities are now gone. Mops looks up the information that Apple provides for Toolbox calls, and makes all the necessary adjustments behind the scenes. This was something we had to do for the PowerPC in any case, since the lengths of parameters can be different.
:class PEN super{ object }
...
This is the beginning of the definition of a major class for this program, the one that defines the characteristics of a pen that draws on the Mac screen. We should point out that by defining a drawing pen in Mops' object-oriented environment, you can have more than one pen drawing object in a given section of the screen (e.g., a window). The Mac Toolbox on its own does not give you this power. Consider it an added bonus of using an object-oriented language such as Mops. As you can see, there are many instance variables for this class. Some are points, some are integers, a couple are variables, and one is an angle as defined in the class Angle (from the previous lesson).
As the comment indicates, the first five instance variables are the components of a Macintosh Toolbox data structure, a PenState. This is the structure required by the calls GetPenState and SetPenState, just as FrameRect required a Rect (lesson 5). For details on what the PenState variables are, Inside Macintosh's Quickdraw chapter is the best source. There you learn that a PenState contains four variables, called pnLoc (a coordinate point), pnSize (a coordinate point indicating the number of pixels wide and high — from coordinate 0,0 — the pen is), pnMode (an integer), and pnPat (an 8-byte representation of the pen pattern discussed fully in Inside Macintosh). Corresponding variables are set up in this class so that any object created from this class will have those parameters stored in the right place and in the right order.
Since this is a Toolbox structure, we have to declare it as a 68k_record, as we discussed in lesson 5. Ivars declared within records have no extra Mops housekeeping information between them, and this is what Toolbox structures require.
The reason PnPat is divided is because the largest basic data structure readily available from the predefined data structure classes is 4 bytes wide: the VAR. What we can do then, is break up the 8-byte pnPat variable into two 4-byte chunks, called PnPatLo and PnPatHi, with PnPatHi holding the leftmost byte values.
The remaining instance variables will be used for other purposes in the methods definitions of this class. If you were building this class from scratch, you would probably be inserting new instance variables in this list as you find need for them while defining methods.
The remaining instance variables will be used for other purposes in the methods definitions of this class. If you were building this class from scratch, you would probably be inserting new instance variables in this list as you find need for them while defining methods.
:m GET: ^base GetPenState ;m \ Save state here :m SET: ^base SetPenState ;m \ Restore from here
These two methods will be used frequently whenever an object of this class draws something on the screen. The first, GET:, copies the values of the Pen State variables from the Macintosh Toolbox to the ivars of an object. It's like taking a snapshot of the parameters at a given moment. Thus, after you move the pen to point x,y, a GET: saves the PenState conditions in an object's memory space. Later, when it comes time to pick up where you left off, you can SET: the parameters, which copies them from the object's memory to the Toolbox.
With the PenState variables saved within an object's 'private data,' other objects can use the same Toolbox routines without destroy in the parameters of the first object. For example, if you tell the Toolbox to position the class Pen object named Scripto1 at coordinate 1,1, and then save those coordinates in Scripto1's data area, you are then free to instruct the Toolbox to position Scripto2 at 100,120, without affecting the data in Scripto1. Later, when you need to work with Scripto1, the SET: command reminds the Toolbox where Scripto1's position was the last time.
:m TURN: ( deg -- ) +: direction ;m … …
The next twelve methods are responsible for manipulating the parameters that affect any object of this class. For example, TURN: increments the angle value stored in an object's Direction ivar (+: Direction) by the number of degrees passed to it in a message, like
30 turn: Scripto1
The Direction ivar is used by sin: and cos: methods from the last lesson. These correctly handle degree values of greater than 359 degrees, or less than 0 degrees. For this reason, TURN: does not concern itself with whether the new Direction is in the range 0 - 359 degrees.
UP: (line 35) simply places a 90 in the data cell of an object's Direction ivar. This is consistent with the notation of the last chapter where the up position is 90 degrees. This will be used in a positioning message later to reset the orientation of objects drawn with a pen object from this class.
In the MOVETO: method, we see the LineTo Toolbox call. The LineTo Quick-Draw procedure, as noted in Inside Macintosh, draws a line from the current pen location (the one set in the Toolbox by the set: self operation) to the coordinate specified in the two parameters. As soon as the drawing is completed, the new pen state is saved in the object's memory (get: self).
The MOVE: method present another kind of line drawing. This time the location of the destination point is determined by the length (in pixels) and the direction (as retrieved from the Direction ivar). This method uses a named input parameter, Dist, because it will be much more convenient to recall the value for each of the two calculations that will be performed on it in this method. Notice that this method makes use of the sin: and cos: methods defined in the Sin program earlier. That means that Sin must be loaded into Mops before Turtle. The statement need Sin on line 3 ensures this.
The operations in MOVE: should now be familiar to you. The current pen state is copied from the object's ivar to the Toolbox. Then the sine of the current direction (the object's Direction ivar is the source of the information) is multiplied by the distance in pixels, and then divided by 10,000 (remember, sin's values have been multiplied by 10,000 for ease of handling) to obtain the x-coordinate for the destination point (which remains on the stack). The y-coordinate is calculated by the operations in line 37. Finally, the two coordinates are packed into one cell and sent to the QuickDraw routine, Line, which draws the new line. After the drawing is completed, the pen state is saved in the object's memory (get: self).
The next four methods, GOTO:, CENTER:, HOME:, and SIZE: should be largely self-explanatory. All of them but HOME: place new values into specific ivars, including one that affects some values of the pen state. HOME: simply retrieves the most recent value stored via the CENTER: method, and moves a pen class object to that location. The values you pass to CENTER: depend on the size of the displaying window, because coordinates are relative to the upper left corner of a window, no matter where it appears on the screen. (For comparison, the smallest Mac screen is 512 pixels horizontally by 342 vertically.)
INIT: (line 57) allows an object to respecify up to three pen state parameters (mode, size, and location) by way of a single message. All parameters must be sent with the message, even if only one of them is to be changed.
The method PUTRANGE: places values into an object's ivar slots that will be used as parameters for some fancy graphics later in the program. The names stand for a change (delta) in degrees, a change in length, and an initial length.
PUTMAX: is the method that allows you to set a value for the maximum number of repetitions some of the graphics images should make. The effect of the parameter will become more apparent when we get to the figures themselves.
Then comes the now familiar CLASSINIT: method is performed when an object of this class is created. It first saves a copy of the current pen state parameters (the ones the Toolbox starts up with) from the Toolbox into an object's first five ivars (get: self). Finally, the maxReps ivar for the object is set to 200.
:m SPIRAL: { \ dist degrees delta reps -- }
…
:m DRAGON: \ ( n -- ) Dragon curves from Martin Gardner
…
:m LJ: { \ reps -- } \ Draws an infinite Lissajous figure
…
These three methods are largely Mops versions of math calculations for three types of graphics images: spirals, dragon curves, and Lissajous (pronounced Lih-sah-zhoo) figures. It's not important for our discussion here to understand the inner workings of these graphic routines. You can, of course, trace the processes yourself, if you like.
We do, however, want to call your attention to the application of local variables in SPIRAL: (and in LJ:). The backslash inside the curly brackets signifies that these names are local variables, rather than named input parameters (see MOVE: above). As noted in an earlier lesson, the local variable names are used strictly inside a definition, and have no relation to named input parameters in the same definition.
The SPIRAL: method declares four local variable names: dist, degrees, delta and reps.
home: self
moves the pen to the center of the current drawing window.
get: initLen -> dist get: deltaLen -> delta
Dist and delta are given values by first fetching values from two of the object's ivars, initLen and deltaLen, and then storing the values in their respective local variables (via -> operations).
get: deltaDeg -> degrees 0 -> reps
Here the third local variable, degrees, gets its value after the deltaDeg ivar value is fetched from the object's memory. Reps is initialized to zero, and will be used as a counter to compare to maxReps. Once these local variables have values stored in them, they can be used throughout that method for whatever calculations are desired, as shown in the following lines:
BEGIN 1 ++> reps reps get: maxReps <
WHILE dist move: self degrees turn: self
delta ++> dist
REPEAT ;m
Without local variables, you would have to arrange for a significant amount of stack manipulation to keep the right values in the right places for calculation. It also simplifies your job of converting complex formulas into Mops, since you can construct your methods using familiar value names in your operations.
This means, of course, that the program will have to load values into initLen, deltaLen, and deltaDeg before a SPIRAL: selector message can be sent. But that's why PUTRANGE: was defined earlier.
;class
ends the definition of class Pen.
\ Define a Smalltalk Polygon object as subclass of Pen
:class POLY super{ pen }
…
This next section is another class definition. This class, Poly, is a subclass of Pen, so it inherits the methods and ivars of Pen. Therefore, if you create an object of the class Poly, you can still issue messages with selectors like MOVE: and HOME:.
int Sides \ # of sides in the Polygon int Length \ Length of each side
Class Poly has two additional instance variables, both of them integers. When you create an object of this class, the extra ivars are added to the list of ivars inherited from class Pen. One ivar is for the number of sides of a polygon object created from this class. The other is the length (in pixels) of each side (all sides are of equal length).
:m DRAW: { \ turnAngle -- }
360 get: sides / -> turnAngle
get: sides 0
DO get: length move: self
turnAngle turn: self
LOOP ;m
This method is an extension of the MOVE: and TURN: methods defined in class Pen. First the angle of the turn is calculated by dividing 360 by the number of sides, and is saved in the local variable turnAngle. DRAW: then sets up a DO...LOOP that performs the actual polygon drawing. Using the Sides ivar as the limit for the loop, one side is drawn (GET: Length MOVE: Self). Then the direction is changed by the amount of turnAngle. This draw...turn action is repeated until the index equals the limit of the loop.
:m SIZE: \ ( len #sides -- ) Stores sides and goes to Home
get: self put: sides put: length
home: self up: self ;m
SIZE: is redefined for this subclass. It takes two parameters: the length of each side and the number of sides for the polygon. GET: Self copies the current pen state into an object's PenState ivars when you specify the size of a new Poly object (SIZE: will be the first selector You'll send to a new poly object, and it needs the PenState variables in its ivars right away). The size parameters are stored in their respective instance variables, Sides and Length. This method also positions an object to the home position (as defined by the HOME: method in class Pen) and orients it facing to the top of the screen (from the UP: method also in class Pen).
:m SPIN: { \ reps -- } \ Spins a series of polygons around a point
home: self 10 get: initLen size: self
0 -> reps
BEGIN reps get: maxReps <
WHILE draw: self get: deltaDeg turn: self
get: deltaLen +: length 1 ++> reps
REPEAT ;m
The SPIN: method is a routine that draws a sequence of polygons around a center point to make them look as if they are spinning. Notice that this method has one local variable, reps, which is used as a counter for the number of repetitions through the BEGIN...WHILE...REPEAT loop.
:m CLASSINIT: \ Default Poly is 30-dot triangle
30 3 size: self 100 put: maxReps ;m
Finally, the default settings for an object of class Poly are set by CLASSINIT:. Unless otherwise specified, a Poly object will be a polygon with 3 sides, each 30 pixels long. This method also sets the ivar, maxReps, to 100.
\ Create a pen named Bic Pen BIC \ Create a Polygon named Anna Poly ANNA 60 4 size: Anna
These are two examples of objects ceated from the classes just defined. The first, Bic, is an object of class Pen. Anna is an object of class Poly. In the last line, Anna is changed from its default 30-pixel triangle to a square (4 sides) of 60 pixels on a side.
Experimenting With Turtle
Now that you have an understanding of the inner workings of the Turtle program, it's time to play around with it. We'll start you off with some ideas of things you can do by creating some objects, defining new Mops words, defining new subclasses and even modifying the existing methods to do some tricks. The more you play with Mops, the quicker you will become comfortable with all its powers.
First, you must load the file Turtle. Load it by either selecting the Load command from the File menu, or typing the 'slash-slash' command, as in
// turtle
As the file loads, you will see messages as each component file is loaded; you may see occasional messages when words are redefined or if an object name is being reused (is not unique). This will happen if TRUE has been put in the global value WARNINGS?
TRUE -> warnings?
Normally this value is set to FALSE, so warnings are not displayed.
Note: A value 'WARNINGS?' was gone in PowerMops.
Once the files are loaded, you might want to see what Lissajous figures are. Use the Bic pen object as your drawing device. If you look closely at the methods definition for LJ:, You'll see that it needs values in several ivars of Bic for it to function: initLen, deltaLen, deltaDeg, and homeLoc (it also needs maxReps, but that value is set at 200 by CLASSINIT:). For convenience sake, define a Mops word, 'lj,' that a) takes three input parameters and assigns them to the first three ivars (an operation that is performed by method PUTRANGE:), b) puts the homeLocation in the center of the screen (performed by method CENTER:), and c) draws the Lissajous figures (method LJ:). Here's one way to do it:
: lj cls putrange: bic
250 160 center: bic
lj: bic cr ;
Try typing in various three integer combinations (e.g., 9 11 301 lj ) and watch the variety of curves that are drawn. Try 2 2 2 lj, and You'll notice that the cursor prints on the screen at the last instant before the cr brings the prompt over to the left margin. To eliminate this, you need to turn off the cursor with the Mops word -curs (the opposite, +curs, turns the cursor back on).
Now, define a new word that turns the cursor off before doing the Lissajous figures, and turns it on when the drawing is completed:
: cleanlj -curs lj +curs ;
A Tip: Since PowerMops uses MLTE (Multi-Lingual Text Engine), Graphics drawn on PowerMops console will be a bit dirty. When you try the experiments in this section on PowerMops, you can use, instead, a Test window as the screen. First, execute:
Window ww Test: wwThen resize the test window up to about 512*512. Then execute Graphic words, lj, creanlj etc. from QuickEdit (When you ENTER a command on a QuickEdit window, an Apple event is sent to PowerMops and the command will be executed in PowerMops).
On some integer combinations, the number of repetitions may not be sufficient for the Lissajous figures to complete their drawing (or before they start retracing previous steps). For example, try 12 1 1949. To increase the number of repetitions, you can send a PUTMAX: message to Bic to change its maxReps ivar.
1000 putmax: bic
Now Let's experiment with the Anna object. Right now, it is a square of 60 pixels on a side. Put the coordinates for the center of the screen in Anna's homeLoc ivar by sending a message with the CENTER: selector:
250 160 center: Anna
Now, move Anna's PnLoc to the center with this message:
home: Anna
Draw Anna. The square appears on the screen. Now clear the screen (CLS) and resize Anna so the object has 8 sides, each 20 pixels long and draw the object:
20 8 size: Anna draw: Anna
In both drawings, the presence of the cursor and Mops prompt really messed things up. Therefore, define a Mops word that:
- clears the screen
- turns the cursor off
- draws Anna
- brings the prompt to the left margin
- turns the cursor back on:
: draw cls -curs draw: anna cr +curs ;
| Lesson 16 | Tutorial | Lesson 18 |
| Documentation | ||
